PHE · Topic 7.1
Training Methods & Injury Prevention
Design and evaluate training programmes. Understand how different training methods develop specific fitness components, and learn how to prevent and manage injuries.
What You'll Learn
- Identify and explain the components of fitness
- Compare five training methods and match them to fitness goals
- Apply the FITT principle and progressive overload to programme design
- Explain the principles of specificity, reversibility, and overload
- Structure an effective warm-up and cool-down
- Identify common sports injuries and apply RICE first aid
- Design a safe, progressive training programme
IB Assessment Focus
Criterion A: Explain training methods, injury prevention, and the physiological basis of exercise.
Criterion B: Design a training programme using FITT, progressive overload, and appropriate methods.
Criterion C: Perform movement skills with correct technique; apply training safely.
Criterion D: Evaluate programme effectiveness; analyse performance and identify specific improvements.
Key Vocabulary
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Interval training | Alternating periods of high-intensity exercise with rest or low intensity |
| Circuit training | Moving through different exercises at stations, targeting multiple muscle groups |
| Resistance training | Using weights or body weight to build muscular strength and endurance |
| Continuous training | Sustained exercise at a steady, moderate intensity for an extended period |
| Fartlek training | "Speed play" — continuous training with unplanned bursts of speed; mixes aerobic and anaerobic |
| FITT principle | Frequency, Intensity, Time, Type — the four variables used to design training |
| Progressive overload | Gradually increasing training demands over time to continue improving |
| RICE | First aid for soft tissue injuries: Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation |
PHE · Topic 7.1
Components of Fitness
Fitness is not a single quality — it is made up of multiple components. Different sports and activities require different combinations of these components.
Health-Related Components
These components are essential for overall health and well-being. They can be improved through regular exercise and healthy lifestyle choices.
| Component | Definition | Example Test |
|---|---|---|
| Cardiovascular endurance | The ability of the heart and lungs to supply oxygen to working muscles over an extended period | Beep test, Cooper run |
| Muscular strength | The maximum force a muscle (or group of muscles) can exert in a single contraction | Grip dynamometer, 1-rep max |
| Muscular endurance | The ability of a muscle to sustain repeated contractions over time without fatiguing | Sit-up test, press-up test |
| Flexibility | The range of movement available at a joint | Sit and reach test |
| Body composition | The proportion of fat, muscle, bone, and water in the body | BMI, skinfold callipers |
Skill-Related Components
These components are more closely linked to sports performance. They can be developed through sport-specific training and practice.
| Component | Definition | Example Sport |
|---|---|---|
| Speed | The ability to move the body or part of the body quickly | 100m sprint |
| Agility | The ability to change direction quickly while maintaining control | Football, basketball |
| Power | The combination of strength and speed (force × velocity) | Shot put, high jump |
| Coordination | The ability to use two or more body parts together smoothly and efficiently | Tennis serve, dribbling |
| Reaction time | The time taken to respond to a stimulus | Sprint start, goalkeeping |
| Balance | The ability to maintain the body's centre of gravity over the base of support | Gymnastics, surfing |
Key Distinction: Muscular strength = maximum force in one effort (heavy weight, few reps). Muscular endurance = sustained effort over time (lighter weight, many reps). Training for one does NOT automatically improve the other — they require different training protocols.
PHE · Topic 7.1
Training Methods
Each training method targets specific fitness components. Choosing the right method depends on your goals, sport, and current fitness level.
Training Methods Comparison
| Method | What It Is | Best For | Example Session |
|---|---|---|---|
| Interval training | Alternating periods of high-intensity work with rest or low-intensity recovery | Cardiovascular fitness + anaerobic capacity | 30s sprint / 90s walk × 8 sets |
| Circuit training | A series of exercises performed at stations, usually timed, with minimal rest between stations | Overall fitness, muscular endurance | 8 stations × 45s each, 15s rest |
| Resistance training | Using external resistance (weights, bands, body weight) to overload muscles | Muscular strength and size | 3 sets × 10 reps, heavy weights |
| Continuous training | Sustained exercise at a steady, moderate intensity (60–80% max HR) for 20+ minutes | Cardiovascular endurance | 30-minute run at steady pace |
| Fartlek training | "Speed play" — continuous running with unplanned changes of pace and terrain | Cardiovascular + speed; mirrors sport demands | Varied pace run: jog, sprint, hill, recover |
Strength vs Endurance Training
| Variable | Muscular Strength | Muscular Endurance |
|---|---|---|
| Weight/resistance | Heavy (70–100% of 1RM) | Light to moderate (40–60% of 1RM) |
| Repetitions | 3–8 reps | 12–20+ reps |
| Sets | 3–5 sets | 2–3 sets |
| Rest between sets | 2–5 minutes | 30–60 seconds |
| Goal | Maximum force production | Sustained muscle work over time |
Choosing the Right Method
When selecting a training method, consider these factors:
- Goal: What fitness component are you trying to improve?
- Sport: What energy systems does your sport use? (e.g., a marathon uses aerobic; sprinting uses anaerobic)
- Current fitness level: Beginners should start with lower intensity and simpler methods
- Equipment available: Circuit training can be done without equipment; resistance training typically requires weights
- Time available: Circuit training is time-efficient; continuous training requires longer sessions
PHE · Topic 7.1
Training Principles
Training principles are the scientific foundations that guide effective programme design. Apply these correctly to ensure safe, progressive improvement.
The FITT Principle
FITT provides a framework for manipulating four variables to design or adjust a training programme:
| Letter | Variable | Meaning | Example Adjustment |
|---|---|---|---|
| F | Frequency | How often you train (sessions per week) | Increase from 3 to 4 sessions per week |
| I | Intensity | How hard you work (heart rate, weight, speed) | Increase running speed from 8 to 9 km/h |
| T | Time | Duration of each training session | Increase from 20 to 30 minutes |
| T | Type | The training method or activity chosen | Switch from continuous to interval training |
Key Training Principles
Progressive Overload
To improve fitness, you must gradually increase the demands placed on the body over time. Without progressive overload, the body adapts and improvement plateaus. You can overload by increasing any FITT variable (frequency, intensity, time, or changing type).
Example: A runner who always jogs 3 km at the same pace will stop improving. They must progressively increase distance, speed, or frequency to continue adaptation.
Specificity
Training must be relevant to the sport or goal. The body adapts specifically to the type of training performed. Training effects are specific to the muscles used, the energy system targeted, and the movement patterns practised.
Example: A swimmer should train in the pool (sport-specific), not exclusively on a treadmill. A footballer needs agility and anaerobic fitness, not just long-distance endurance.
Reversibility
If training stops or decreases significantly, the body will lose the fitness gains it has made. This is sometimes called "use it or lose it." Fitness is lost approximately three times faster than it is gained.
Example: An athlete who stops training for 4 weeks due to injury will notice a measurable decline in cardiovascular endurance and muscular strength.
Rest & Recovery
The body needs time to repair and adapt between training sessions. Muscles grow and strengthen during rest, not during exercise. Without adequate recovery, the risk of overtraining, fatigue, and injury increases significantly.
Guideline: Allow at least 48 hours between sessions targeting the same muscle group. Include 1–2 rest days per week.
Critical Rule: When designing a training programme, always include a warm-up and cool-down, and ensure the programme follows the FITT principle and progressive overload. A programme without recovery days will lead to overtraining and injury.
PHE · Topic 7.1
Warm-up & Cool-down
Every training session must begin with a warm-up and end with a cool-down. These are not optional — they are essential for safety and performance.
Warm-up Structure (10–15 minutes)
A proper warm-up has three phases, performed in order:
| Phase | What It Does | Examples | Duration |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Pulse raiser | Gradually increases heart rate and blood flow to muscles | Light jogging, skipping, cycling | 3–5 min |
| 2. Dynamic stretching | Moves joints through their range of motion to increase flexibility and prepare muscles | Leg swings, arm circles, lunges with rotation | 3–5 min |
| 3. Sport-specific drills | Practises movements that mimic the main activity at increasing intensity | Dribbling (football), passing (basketball), shadow boxing | 3–5 min |
Why Warm Up?
- Increases heart rate — more oxygen delivered to muscles
- Raises muscle temperature — muscles contract faster and more forcefully
- Increases flexibility — reduces risk of muscle tears and joint injuries
- Prepares the nervous system — improves reaction time and coordination
- Mentally prepares the athlete — focus and concentration improve
Cool-down Structure (5–10 minutes)
| Phase | What It Does | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Light activity | Gradually reduces heart rate; keeps blood flowing to remove waste products | Slow jogging, walking |
| 2. Static stretching | Holds muscles in a stretched position to maintain or improve flexibility; reduces muscle tension | Hamstring stretch (hold 15–30s), quad stretch, calf stretch |
Why Cool Down?
- Gradually lowers heart rate — prevents dizziness and fainting
- Removes lactic acid — blood flow flushes waste products from muscles
- Reduces muscle soreness — DOMS (Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness) is minimised
- Prevents blood pooling — stopping suddenly can cause blood to pool in the legs
- Maintains flexibility — static stretching while muscles are warm is most effective
Key Distinction: Use dynamic stretching in the warm-up (moving stretches) and static stretching in the cool-down (held stretches). Static stretching before exercise can actually reduce power output and increase injury risk.
PHE · Topic 7.1
Injury Prevention & First Aid
Understanding how injuries occur and how to prevent them is a critical part of any training programme. Learn to recognise common injuries and apply appropriate first aid.
Injury Prevention Strategies
- Always warm up and cool down — prepares the body and aids recovery
- Use correct technique — poor form is the leading cause of preventable injuries
- Wear appropriate equipment — shin pads, helmets, correct footwear
- Follow progressive overload — do not increase intensity too quickly (10% rule)
- Include rest days — allow 48 hours recovery for the same muscle group
- Stay hydrated — dehydration increases risk of cramps, heat stroke, and poor performance
- Check the environment — uneven surfaces, wet floors, and broken equipment cause injuries
- Know your limits — training through pain leads to more severe injuries
Common Sports Injuries
| Injury | What It Is | Common Cause | Signs & Symptoms |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sprain | Overstretching or tearing of a ligament (connects bone to bone) | Twisting a joint (e.g., rolling an ankle) | Swelling, bruising, pain, difficulty moving the joint |
| Strain | Overstretching or tearing of a muscle or tendon (connects muscle to bone) | Sudden force or overuse (e.g., pulling a hamstring) | Pain, muscle spasm, weakness, swelling |
| Fracture | A break or crack in a bone | Direct impact, fall, or excessive force | Severe pain, deformity, swelling, inability to move |
| Dislocation | A bone is forced out of its normal position in a joint | Impact or fall (e.g., shoulder dislocation) | Visible deformity, intense pain, loss of movement |
| Concussion | A brain injury caused by a blow to the head | Contact sports, falls, collisions | Headache, dizziness, confusion, nausea |
Key Distinction: Sprain = ligament (bone to bone). Strain = muscle or tendon (muscle to bone). Remember: "t" in strain = tendon.
RICE First Aid Protocol
RICE is the immediate first aid treatment for soft tissue injuries (sprains, strains, bruises). Apply within the first 48–72 hours.
| Letter | Action | Why |
|---|---|---|
| R | Rest | Stop activity immediately to prevent further damage |
| I | Ice | Apply ice (wrapped in cloth) for 15–20 minutes every 2 hours to reduce swelling and pain |
| C | Compression | Apply a bandage firmly (not too tight) to support the injury and limit swelling |
| E | Elevation | Raise the injured limb above heart level to reduce blood flow and swelling |
Training Programme Design
When designing a training programme, include all of these elements:
- Identify the goal: Which fitness components need improving? What sport or activity is the programme for?
- Assess current fitness: Baseline testing to identify starting levels
- Select training methods: Choose methods that match the goal (specificity)
- Apply FITT: Set frequency, intensity, time, and type for each session
- Plan progressive overload: Outline how variables will increase over weeks
- Include warm-up and cool-down: Every session must have both
- Schedule rest days: At least 1–2 per week; alternate muscle groups
- Monitor and evaluate: Re-test fitness components; adjust the programme based on results
PHE · Practice Q&A
Practice Questions
Tap each question to reveal the model answer. Try to answer from memory first before checking.
EXPLAINExplain the difference between muscular strength and muscular endurance, and describe a training method suitable for each.
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Model Answer
Muscular strength is the maximum force a muscle can produce in a single contraction. It is developed through resistance training with heavy weights and low repetitions (3–5 sets of 3–8 reps at 70–100% 1RM).
Muscular endurance is the ability of a muscle to sustain repeated contractions over time without fatigue. It is developed through circuit training or resistance training with lighter weights and higher repetitions (2–3 sets of 12–20 reps at 40–60% 1RM).
The key difference is in the load and volume: strength training uses heavy loads with few reps, while endurance training uses lighter loads with many reps.
Muscular endurance is the ability of a muscle to sustain repeated contractions over time without fatigue. It is developed through circuit training or resistance training with lighter weights and higher repetitions (2–3 sets of 12–20 reps at 40–60% 1RM).
The key difference is in the load and volume: strength training uses heavy loads with few reps, while endurance training uses lighter loads with many reps.
DESIGNA 14-year-old wants to improve their cardiovascular endurance for football. Design a suitable 4-week training programme outline using the FITT principle.
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Model Answer
Goal: Improve cardiovascular endurance for football
Method: Fartlek training (sport-specific — mirrors the varied pace of football)
FITT framework:
• Frequency: 3 sessions per week (Mon, Wed, Fri) with rest days between
• Intensity: 60–80% max heart rate, with sprint bursts at 85–90%
• Time: Start at 20 minutes, increase by 5 minutes every week (progressive overload)
• Type: Fartlek training on grass/varied terrain
Progressive overload: Week 1: 20 min; Week 2: 25 min; Week 3: 30 min; Week 4: 30 min with more sprint intervals
Every session includes: Warm-up (pulse raiser, dynamic stretches, football drills) → Main activity → Cool-down (light jog, static stretches)
Method: Fartlek training (sport-specific — mirrors the varied pace of football)
FITT framework:
• Frequency: 3 sessions per week (Mon, Wed, Fri) with rest days between
• Intensity: 60–80% max heart rate, with sprint bursts at 85–90%
• Time: Start at 20 minutes, increase by 5 minutes every week (progressive overload)
• Type: Fartlek training on grass/varied terrain
Progressive overload: Week 1: 20 min; Week 2: 25 min; Week 3: 30 min; Week 4: 30 min with more sprint intervals
Every session includes: Warm-up (pulse raiser, dynamic stretches, football drills) → Main activity → Cool-down (light jog, static stretches)
JUSTIFYJustify why a warm-up is essential before high-intensity exercise.
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Model Answer
A warm-up is essential because it prepares the body physiologically and mentally for high-intensity exercise:
(1) It increases heart rate gradually, delivering more oxygen to working muscles before they are placed under high demand.
(2) It raises muscle temperature, allowing muscles to contract more forcefully and quickly, reducing the risk of muscle tears.
(3) It increases flexibility through dynamic stretching, enabling greater range of movement and reducing injury risk at joints.
(4) It prepares the nervous system, improving reaction time and coordination.
Without a warm-up, muscles are cold and stiff, blood flow is insufficient, and the risk of strains, sprains, and cardiovascular stress is significantly higher.
(1) It increases heart rate gradually, delivering more oxygen to working muscles before they are placed under high demand.
(2) It raises muscle temperature, allowing muscles to contract more forcefully and quickly, reducing the risk of muscle tears.
(3) It increases flexibility through dynamic stretching, enabling greater range of movement and reducing injury risk at joints.
(4) It prepares the nervous system, improving reaction time and coordination.
Without a warm-up, muscles are cold and stiff, blood flow is insufficient, and the risk of strains, sprains, and cardiovascular stress is significantly higher.
APPLYA student sprains their ankle during a basketball game. Describe the RICE procedure they should follow.
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Model Answer
R — Rest: The student should stop playing immediately and avoid putting weight on the ankle to prevent further damage to the ligament.
I — Ice: Apply an ice pack wrapped in a cloth to the ankle for 15–20 minutes every 2 hours. This reduces swelling and numbs pain. Never apply ice directly to skin.
C — Compression: Wrap the ankle firmly with a compression bandage to support the joint and limit swelling. The bandage should be snug but not so tight that it cuts off circulation.
E — Elevation: Raise the ankle above heart level (e.g., lying down with the foot on cushions) to reduce blood flow to the area and minimise swelling.
The student should continue RICE for 48–72 hours and seek medical attention if the pain is severe, they cannot bear weight, or the swelling does not improve.
I — Ice: Apply an ice pack wrapped in a cloth to the ankle for 15–20 minutes every 2 hours. This reduces swelling and numbs pain. Never apply ice directly to skin.
C — Compression: Wrap the ankle firmly with a compression bandage to support the joint and limit swelling. The bandage should be snug but not so tight that it cuts off circulation.
E — Elevation: Raise the ankle above heart level (e.g., lying down with the foot on cushions) to reduce blood flow to the area and minimise swelling.
The student should continue RICE for 48–72 hours and seek medical attention if the pain is severe, they cannot bear weight, or the swelling does not improve.
EXPLAINExplain the principle of progressive overload and why it is important in a training programme.
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Model Answer
Progressive overload is the principle that training demands must be gradually increased over time for continued fitness improvement. The body adapts to the stress placed upon it — once it has adapted, the same level of training will no longer produce improvements.
Overload can be achieved by adjusting any FITT variable:
• Increase frequency (e.g., from 3 to 4 sessions per week)
• Increase intensity (e.g., from 5 kg to 7 kg weights)
• Increase time (e.g., from 20 to 25 minutes)
• Change type (e.g., from continuous to interval training)
Without progressive overload, the body reaches a plateau and stops improving. However, overload must be gradual — increasing demands too quickly leads to overtraining, fatigue, and injury.
Overload can be achieved by adjusting any FITT variable:
• Increase frequency (e.g., from 3 to 4 sessions per week)
• Increase intensity (e.g., from 5 kg to 7 kg weights)
• Increase time (e.g., from 20 to 25 minutes)
• Change type (e.g., from continuous to interval training)
Without progressive overload, the body reaches a plateau and stops improving. However, overload must be gradual — increasing demands too quickly leads to overtraining, fatigue, and injury.
COMPARECompare interval training and continuous training. When would each be most appropriate?
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Model Answer
Interval training alternates between high-intensity work periods and rest or low-intensity recovery periods. It develops both aerobic and anaerobic fitness. It is most appropriate for sports that involve bursts of speed followed by recovery (e.g., football, basketball, tennis).
Continuous training involves sustained, steady-pace exercise at moderate intensity (60–80% max HR) for 20+ minutes. It primarily develops aerobic/cardiovascular endurance. It is most appropriate for sports that require prolonged sustained effort (e.g., marathon running, cycling, swimming).
Key difference: Interval training is more time-efficient and develops speed alongside endurance. Continuous training builds a strong aerobic base but does not significantly improve anaerobic capacity or speed.
Continuous training involves sustained, steady-pace exercise at moderate intensity (60–80% max HR) for 20+ minutes. It primarily develops aerobic/cardiovascular endurance. It is most appropriate for sports that require prolonged sustained effort (e.g., marathon running, cycling, swimming).
Key difference: Interval training is more time-efficient and develops speed alongside endurance. Continuous training builds a strong aerobic base but does not significantly improve anaerobic capacity or speed.
EVALUATEA student’s training programme has no rest days and trains the same muscle groups every day. Evaluate this programme.
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Model Answer
This programme is poorly designed and violates two key training principles:
(1) Rest and recovery: The body needs at least 48 hours to repair muscle tissue after training. Training the same muscles daily prevents recovery, leading to overtraining syndrome — characterised by persistent fatigue, decreased performance, increased injury risk, and poor sleep.
(2) Progressive overload: Without rest, muscles cannot adapt and grow stronger. The student will actually regress rather than improve, as the body breaks down faster than it can rebuild.
Improvements: Include 1–2 complete rest days per week. If training daily, alternate muscle groups (e.g., upper body Mon/Wed/Fri, lower body Tue/Thu). Include active recovery sessions (light activity like walking or swimming).
(1) Rest and recovery: The body needs at least 48 hours to repair muscle tissue after training. Training the same muscles daily prevents recovery, leading to overtraining syndrome — characterised by persistent fatigue, decreased performance, increased injury risk, and poor sleep.
(2) Progressive overload: Without rest, muscles cannot adapt and grow stronger. The student will actually regress rather than improve, as the body breaks down faster than it can rebuild.
Improvements: Include 1–2 complete rest days per week. If training daily, alternate muscle groups (e.g., upper body Mon/Wed/Fri, lower body Tue/Thu). Include active recovery sessions (light activity like walking or swimming).
PHE · Review
Flashcard Review
Tap each card to reveal the answer. Try to answer from memory first.
What is interval training?
Alternating periods of high-intensity work with rest or low-intensity recovery. Develops both cardiovascular fitness and anaerobic capacity.
Tap to reveal
What does RICE stand for?
Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation — the immediate first aid treatment for soft tissue injuries like sprains and strains.
Tap to reveal
What does FITT stand for?
Frequency (how often), Intensity (how hard), Time (how long), Type (what method) — the four variables for designing training programmes.
Tap to reveal
Muscular strength vs muscular endurance?
Strength = maximum force in one effort (heavy weights, 3–8 reps). Endurance = sustained effort over time (lighter weights, 12–20+ reps).
Tap to reveal
What is progressive overload?
Gradually increasing training demands over time to ensure continued improvement. Without it, the body adapts and improvement plateaus.
Tap to reveal
What is Fartlek training?
"Speed play" — continuous running with unplanned bursts of speed and changes of pace. Develops both aerobic and anaerobic fitness; mirrors real sport demands.
Tap to reveal
What are the 3 phases of a warm-up?
1. Pulse raiser (light cardio) → 2. Dynamic stretching (moving stretches) → 3. Sport-specific drills (mimics main activity).
Tap to reveal
Why is a cool-down important?
Gradually lowers heart rate; removes lactic acid; reduces muscle soreness (DOMS); prevents blood pooling in the legs; maintains flexibility.
Tap to reveal
Sprain vs strain?
Sprain = overstretched/torn ligament (connects bone to bone). Strain = overstretched/torn muscle or tendon (connects muscle to bone). Remember: sTrain = Tendon.
Tap to reveal
What is the principle of specificity?
Training must be relevant to your sport or goal. The body adapts specifically to the type of training performed — train the muscles, energy systems, and movements your sport requires.
Tap to reveal
What is reversibility?
"Use it or lose it" — if training stops, fitness gains are lost. Fitness is lost approximately 3 times faster than it is gained.
Tap to reveal
Name 5 health-related fitness components.
1. Cardiovascular endurance, 2. Muscular strength, 3. Muscular endurance, 4. Flexibility, 5. Body composition.
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Name 3 skill-related fitness components.
Speed, Agility, Power. Also: Coordination, Reaction time, Balance.
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What is circuit training?
A series of exercises performed at stations, usually timed, with minimal rest between stations. Develops overall fitness and muscular endurance. Easily adapted to any sport.
Tap to reveal
Dynamic vs static stretching?
Dynamic = moving stretches used in warm-up (leg swings, lunges). Static = held stretches used in cool-down (hold 15–30s). Never use static stretching before high-intensity exercise.
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PHE · Practice Test
Practice Test — 20 Questions
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